Cross-national and multilevel correlates of partner violence: an analysis of data from population-based surveys
Outcomes: Gender‑Based Violence
View SourceKey Social Norms Take-aways Norms justifying wife beating and endorsing male authority over women’s behavior are strongly associated with higher rates of intimate partner violence (IPV). These gender norms not only influence national IPV prevalence but also modify how individual-level factors like education and employment affect women’s risk, highlighting the importance of transforming harmful norms alongside individual-focused interventions.
Objectives This study investigates whether macro-level gender-related factors—such as women’s legal rights, economic status, and gender norms—predict national levels of IPV and whether these factors interact with individual characteristics to influence women’s risk of experiencing violence.
Methods Using data from 66 population-based surveys conducted across 44 countries (88 survey years, 481,205 women), the authors applied linear, quantile, and multilevel regression analyses. They explored associations between IPV prevalence and a range of macro-level variables, including gender-discriminatory norms and laws, while accounting for individual-level data on women’s education, employment, and attitudes.
Intervention Details Not applicable; this is a cross-national observational study, not an intervention.
Results Norms condoning wife beating and supporting male control over women, as well as discriminatory property and family laws, were among the strongest predictors of IPV prevalence. While higher GDP was initially associated with lower IPV rates, this effect disappeared when controlling for gender norms, indicating GDP may act as a proxy for broader social transformation. Multilevel analysis showed that individual factors like education and working for cash interacted with the societal context: education was more protective in countries with high acceptance of violence, and employment increased IPV risk in settings where few women work.
Conclusions Reducing IPV requires addressing macro-level gender inequalities and social norms alongside individual-level risk factors. Reforms that promote women’s legal and economic rights and shift cultural attitudes about male authority and violence are essential. Programming should also consider how social context shapes the effects of individual-level interventions, ensuring that strategies are responsive to both structural and cultural dimensions of violence.
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